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Despite their potential as a sustainable energy technology, the operation of proton exchange membrane fuel cells
(PEMFCs) in sub-freezing conditions remains a critical challenge due to the risk of ice formation and performance
degradation. This study introduces a new passive thermal management technique using strategically arranged
multi-layer phase change materials (PCMs) to address this challenge. A numerical model was developed to
evaluate the thermal behavior across various PCM configurations, incorporating one, two, and three layers arranged both in parallel and series with distinct melting points ranging from 55 to 65 ◦C. The results show that
multi-layer PCM configurations provide significant improvements over the single-layer base
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